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Grammar

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on June 15, 2006 at 7:22:50 pm
 

A Reference Grammar of Creolian

 

Last updated June 15, 2006

 

The following is a reference grammar for the "Creolian" language called Neo Patwa. It can also be used for the older version called Dunia Patwa (they use the same grammar, but Neo Patwa has a simpler phonology and, hence, a slightly different vocabulary). This file is not yet meant for learning, but to serve as a reference.

 

INTRODUCTION

 

Basic Syntax

Sentences in Neo Patwa include a subject, which performs the action, and a verb, which describes the action. Sentences can also include direct and indirect objects. The basic sentence structure, like English, is subject-verb-object (SVO). So to say “I eat rice,” you would say:

Mi makan cawal. (I eat rice.)

 

In Neo Patwa, unlike in standard English, verb and noun forms never change. So for example, you don't have to change a verb depending on the person (like in English, I am, you are, he is, etc.) or the tense (I go, I went). Also, nouns never change depending on their grammatical position (such as I killed him, but he killed me). Similarly, there are no plural forms (so nouns do not become plural by adding an "s" at the end). In addition, there are no feminine and masculine nouns (grammatical gender), as exist in many European languages.

 

This doesn't mean that you can't say complicated things in Neo Patwa. As you'll find out by reading this manual, there are ways to express all the things that need to be expressed in language!

 

Let's begin by looking at the most basic parts of the language: nouns and verbs.

 

NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES

 

Simple Nouns and Compound Nouns

Nouns are words like "book" and "Paris." They represent something, such as an object or idea. In Neo Patwa, nouns can be simple, but can also be compounds. In compounds, they are "head-last," as in English, with no grammatical particle to separate parts of a noun.

 

For example:

Citja (bird)

Nila (blue)

Nilacitja (bluebird, meaning a type of bird rather than a "blue bird")

 

Personal Pronouns

The personal pronouns are a special class of nouns. In Neo Patwa, there are six personal pronouns: mi (I, me); ju (you); ta (it/he/she); mipela (we); yupela (yous); and tapela (they). Pela is a plural marker for certain words, used as a suffix.

 

Affixation

Some words can be created by using affixation. In English, we use prefixes such as "im-" in "impossible" or "-tion" in "creation." In many cases, however, affixes in Neo Patwa are taken directly from words.

 

Modification

Like English, Neo Patwa is not a strictly head-first or head-last language. Modifiers (words like "big" or "quickly") are usually placed before the head word, and genitives (possessives) and relative clauses can be placed both before and after the head word. Demonstratives (like the word "this" in English), quantifiers and adjectives are placed before nouns.

 

Demonstratives

Like in English, demonstratives, including tis (this), tas (that), and wanpela (a certain), go before the noun.

Mi hase mati wanpela jan. (I killed ("make die") a man)

 

Expressing Possession

Possession can be marked by adding the particle "nja" (from Indonesian) after the possessor and before the possessee. The particle can also be used to relate nouns to one another. For example, you might say:

John nja skule (John's school)

Ta stil mi nja pesa (He stole my money)

Woli nja skulepikin (The schoolchildren who are males)

 

Adjectives

Adjectives can come before a noun, followed by a nja, or after a noun, preceded by ce esta. So we could have:

Wanpela nila nja citja ce esta mati. (A blue bird that is dead)

 

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are used to modify a noun. In English, for example, we would say "the man who ate the rice." In this case "who ate the rice" is a relative clause. In Neo Patwa, relative clauses can be created in two ways. Usually, they are placed after the headword. Place the particle "ce" before the clause. So for example:

Cawal ce mi makan (The rice that I eat)

 

Possession through Relative Clauses

A relative clause can also be used to indicate possession, by saying, in effect, "the rice that belongs to me," using the verb "pilom."

Cawal ce pilom mi (my rice)

 

Putting Relative Clauses before the Head

A relative clause can be placed before the head word, essentially by making it into an adjective, using the particle "nja," which is also used for possession. It's equivalent in English to saying "the rice-eating man," except that it is freer, and you can also say the "rice-that-I-made-eating man" (the man who ate the rice I made).

mi make nja cawal makan nja jan. (The person eating the rice that I made)

 

Combining Left- and Right-Branching Constructions

Of course, you can put relative clauses both before and after the head noun, so the clause above could also be expressed as:

 

jan ke makan mi make nja cawal. (The man who ate the rice I made)

Tas mi nja kilapela pula pustaka ce mi pem pastian. (those two red books of mine that I bought yesterday)

 

 

Expressions of Quantity

 

Expressing Cardinal Numbers

Add the suffix counter -pela to a number, before the noun.

Na sala tene kilapela jan. (Two people are in the room; literally "in the room has two people")

 

Expressing Ordinal Numbers

Add the prefix namba- to the number.

Dem bi namba-do son di mi. (He is my second son)

 

Conjunctions

The word for "and" is na.

Mi na Tom go xule fi Lunjadia. (Tom and I went to school on Monday)

 

 

VERBS AND VERB PHRASES

 

Many ideas, such as past and future, can be expressed in Creolian by modifying the verb, or by combining verbs together.

 

Verb Forms

Verbs never change form. There is no infinitive or participles.

 

Adverbs

Adverbs are normally placed before the verb they modify.

 

Preverbal Particles

There are a number of particles that can be placed before a verb to change the meaning. For example, to make a negative statement, you add “no” before the verb.

Mi no go. (I will not go)

 

Serial Verbs

Verbs can be concatenated to indicate various ideas.

Xe no bin xiaq makan cawal. (She didn't want to eat rice.)

 

Aspect and Tense

 

Expressing a Completed Action

To express a past action, which is already completed, you can place the word "bin" before the verb. This is called the anterior tense.

Mi bin makan. (I (already) ate)

 

Irreal mode

The irreal mode, expressed by the particle "me" (from "may" in English) is used for the future or to express something conditional.

Mi me eskale akam. (I'm thinking of climbing the tree) (I'm going to climb the tree)

 

Nonpunctual aspect

Adding the particle "na" (from "now" in English) is generally used to indicate an action that is not yet completed, as in the progressive tenses.

Mi na xuje history. (I am studying history)

 

Expressing Experience

This is used to express something that you have done, or perhaps haven't done.

Mi gwo go Tokyo. (I've been to Tokyo before)

 

Expressing Lack of Experience

Mi no gwo go Tokyo. (I've never been to Tokyo)

 

Expressing Capability

The auxiliary verb "bole" (from Malaysian) can be used to indicate the capability to do something.

Mi bole naxe. (I can swim)

 

Using the Causative to Mark Transitivity

The auxiliary verb "sase" (from Japanese) can be used to show that something was done to something. For example, to "make die" can be used to mean "kill."

Xe sase mati cidja. (He made the bird die) (He killed the bird)

 

Adjectives and Stative Verbs

Adjectives and stative verbs are treated the same. In English, we might say "I am tall" (an adjective) or "He is sleeping" (a stative verb). In Creolian you can use stative verbs like an abjective.

Mi bi hapi. (I am happy)

Im bi xuwi. (He is sleeping)

 

Expressing Degrees of Certainty

 

Expressing Future Possibility

In English, the common usage is “he will probably come.”

Mi (maybe) go naxe. (I might go swim)

 

Expressing Necessity

Mi debe go naxe. (I must swim.)

 

Expressing Lack of Necessity

Mi oke no go swim. (I don't have to go swim.)

 

Expressing Advisability

 

Expressing Prohibition

Mi no bole go swim. (I can't go swim.)

 

Expressing Naturalness, Expectation or Appropriateness

In English, we might say, “He should go.”

 

Expressing a Definite Plan

The auxiliary "daswan" from Mandarin is placed before the verb.

Mi daswan makan cawal. (I'm planning to eat rice)

 

Expressing Repeated Action in the Past

In English, we would say "I used to go there."

 

Using Adverbs

A modifier, which acts as an adjective, can be placed before a verb to modify it. Add the particle nja between the modifier and the verb.

Mi kwai nja makan. I eat fast.

 

 

ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES

 

Statements

A simple statement is generally a subject, followed by a verb, then an object.

 

Repetition of the Subject

In Creolian, a pronoun corresponding to the subject of the sentence should be inserted before the verb, unless the subject is already a pronoun. In English, this would be equivalent to saying "The red car, it is expensive." So for example:

Mi makan cawal. (I eat rice.)

John, ta makan cawal. (John eats rice.)

Jan ke makan mala nja cawal, ta kam malato. (The man who ate bad rice got sick)

 

Expressing Absence

Negative concord is used.

Mi no suka no jan. (I don't like anybody)

 

Questions

Word order is not changed in questions. In other words, a question would be "you do what?" Rather than "what do you do?" in English.

In addition, certain ideas, such as interrogation, can be expressed by placing ending tags at the end of a sentence. For example, you can put ja at the end to make a sentence into a question, la to show that it is emphatic (i.e. that you are stating something strongly) ne to make the sentence quizzical or suggestive (in English, you might add "don't you?" at the end in this case), and ba to make it into a command. This is common in Asian languages, and once you get used to it, it is a very convenient device.

 

Asking Yes/No Questions (1)

Do ask a question that requires a yes or no answer, simply place the particle ja at the end of the sentence.

Tu go, ja? (Do you go?)

 

Asking Yes/No Questions (2)

Another method to as a yes/no question is to write the verb once, followed by no plus the verb again. In this case, you don't need to put a ja at the end of the sentence.

Tu xiaq go no xiaq go? (Do you want to go?) Literally, "you want go, no want go?"

Xe bi no bi laoxi? (Is he a teacher?)

 

Asking Information (Wh-) Questions

There is no need to change the word order (syntactic inversion) when asking a question that requires information, such as "where are you going?." The position of wh-words is not changed within the sentence. It is not necessary to place a question marker at the end of an information question, as it is clear from the context.

Ti go waswela? (When will you go?)

Wasjan makan cawal? (Who is eathing rice?)

 

Imperative

Imperative sentences are used to give orders. In English, the method used is to leave out the subject. So for example, we say "Go to school." In Creolian, you leave the subject in, but place a grammatical marker at the end of the sentence. So:

Ni makan ni nja cawal, jo. (Eat your rice!)

 

Hortative

Hortative means recommending that someone do something together with the speaker. In English we would say, "Let's go swimming," for example. In Creolian, as with the imperative, the subject should remain, and the particle ne can be used to make a sentence into a suggestion.

We go naxe, ne? (Let's go for a swim)

 

Expressing Emphasis

The particle la can be placed at the end of a sentence to mark emphasis.

Mi go, la. (I'm going!)

 

Direct and Indirect Objects

In Creolian, the objects should come after the verb. No marker is necessary for a direct object. However, an indirect object should be marked with a preposition, fi, meaning loosely "for" or "to," and should be placed after the direct object.

Mi sema kisa fi xe. (I told a story to him)

 

Prepositions

 

Prepositional phrases, which describe things about an action, such as when the action took place or using what, are preceded by prepositions (words like to, from, in, at, behind, etc.). Prepositional phrases are typically placed at the end of the sentence (following the verb and objects), but a prepositional phrase can also be placed before the subject of the sentence to express topic prominence. This is generally the same as in English. In addition to fi, which is used as a marker for the indirect object, the following prepositions are used in Creolian.

 

Expressing the Time/Location of Action

The preposition li can be used to indicate a time or location of an action. You don’t need to worry about different prepositions, like "at" and "in" and "on" in English.

Mi go xule li Lunjadia. (I go school on Monday)

Mi dwel li Tokyo. (I live in Tokyo)

Li Tokyo mi dwel. (It is in Tokyo that I live)

 

Expressing Destination

The preposition sa means “to,” so to say "I am going to school" you would say:

Mi go sa xule. (I go to school)

 

Expressing Origin

The preposition li means "from," so to say, "the train came from Tokyo," you would say:

Foce tahal li Tokyo.

 

Expressing Togetherness

In English, we use the preposition "with."

 

 

TOPIC PROMINENCE AND THE PASSIVE VOICE

 

Topic Prominence

Topic prominence involves bringing something to the front of a sentence to emphasize it. In Engish, for example, instead of saying "I read the book," we can say, "It's the book that I read." This puts the emphasis on the book. In Creolian, you can put the marker "nipa" (from Yoruba) to mean roughly "regarding" in front of the object of a sentence, and bring it to the front.

Nipa njoka, mi makan xe. (I ate that snake)

 

Expressing the Passive Voice

In English, passive can be expressed by using "by," so for example, "the man was bitten by the dog." In Creolian, the passive is expressed by using "subi" from French, followed by the action that happened. So to say, "I was bitten by a snake," you would say:

Mi subi njoka bite.

The particle "kena" can be thought of as the verb "experience," so you could imagine, "I experienced, the snake bit."

 

The passive can also be expressed indirectly through topic prominence, by bringing the object to the front of the sentence.

Abwat mi, njoka bit. (literally, "Concerning me, the snake bit.")

 

Existential Sentences

In English, we say "there is a man," for example, in a way that simply expresses the presence or existence of something. In Neo Patwa, you can use the verb "tene" meaning "have." For example.

Atas mi nja mesa, tene wanpela mjao. (There is a cat on my table)

 

Discussing an Action

A verb can be made into a subject or object of a sentence, as in when we say "eating is fun." There is no "-ing" form, so you can just use the verb as is.

Makan panana esta fun. (Eating bananas is fun)

 

EXPRESSING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN IDEAS

 

Connecting Sentences

Sentences can be connected using conjunctions. For example, "mo" means "and" and "kexi" means "but."

Mi bi America-jan, mo xe bi Frans-jan. (I am American, and she is French)

Mi bi America-jan, kexi xe bi Frans-jan. (I am American, but she is French)

 

Expressing Condition

The conjunction "sapos" can be placed before the first clause to mean "if."

Sapos tomorrow skai good, mi go taman. (If he weather is good tomorrow, I’ll go to the park.)

 

COMPARISON

 

Expressing Comparison

The verb kompe can be used to express comparison between two things. For example:

Mi kompe hisam run kwai. (I run faster than a horse)

 

Expressing Superlativity

 

Expressing Equality

 

RELATIONSHIPS IN TIME

 

Expressing Simultaneity

Mi during makan, during soma xuben.

 

Expressing Becoming

In English, we have a suffix –ize that signifies a transformation. For example, international becomes internationalize.

 

Expressing Repetition

In English, the prefix re- can signify a repetition of an action.

 

EXPRESSING NATURAL PHENOMENA

 

There should be a subject plus a verb. For example: Rain is falling, wind is blowing; air is cold.

Barix fall. (It’s raining)

 

EXPRESSING TIME

 

Days

 

Days of the week have names ending in "-din." Like English and many other languages, they are named after the planets. So for example, Monday (day of the moon) is:

Lunadi.

 

Days of the month are simply the numbers followed by "-din." So the 12th would be:

Dekadodin.

 

Two days, as a length of time, would be:

Dopela din.

 

Months

 

The months of the year are expressed as a number followed by "-luna." So January is:

Wanluna.

 

Years

 

A year can be expressed by simply putting the numbers one after the other, and then appending "anjo" at the end. So 1987 would be:

Wannoinpalsem-anjo.

 

Two years as a period of time would be:

Dopela anjo.

 

Historical Dates

 

Historical dates are expressed in the order year, month, day. So January 7, 1605 would be:

Wanseissifabes-anjo wan-luna sem-din.

 

 

CONSTRUCTING WORDS

 

Making Adjectives from Nouns

 

For example, the word for "anxiety" is susi. To mean that something is troubling, you can simply make the adjective hasesusi, meaning "make anxiety." To say that you are anxious, you can say tenesusi, meaning "have anxiety".

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